|
TABLE 7.1
EXPOSURE TO SPOUSE'S SMOKING AND RELATIVE RISK (RR)
OF ALL CANCERS IN ADULTS
Cohort Studies # Cases Exposure to RR (95% CI) for
Passive Smoking Spouse's Smoking
Hirayama, 1984 Husband's smoking
All cancers a
634 Nonsmoking 1.00
1341 Ex-/1-19/day 1.12 (1.03 - 1.21)b
730 20+/day 1.23 (1.12 - 1.35)
Sandler et al., 1989 Males Household smoking
All cancersa 84
No 1.0
31 Yes 1.01 (0.66 - 1.53)
Females
211 No 1.00
290 Yes 1.00 (0.82 - 1.21)
All cancers classified as:
Smoking-related cancers Males
24 No 1.0
8 Yes 0.96 (0.43 - 2.62)
Females
27 No 1.0
49 Yes 1.45 (0.88 - 2.40)
Other cancers Males
60 No 1.0
23 Yes 1.03 (0.40 - 2.62)
Females
184 No 1.0
241 Yes 0.93 (0.76 - 1.54)
Reynold et al., 1987 Husband's smoking
All cancersa 71c No 1.00
Yes 1.68 (1.12 - 1.5)b
Smoking-related cancers 4c No 1.00
Yes 7.01 (1.05 - 47.0)
a There were 200 lung cancers in
Hirayama (1984); 2 lung cancers in Sandler et al., 1989;
and an unspecified number in Reynold et al., 1987.
b 90% CI confidence intervals.
c The
distribution of the 71 cancers by husband's smoking was not presented; the specific
cancer sites were not presented.
TABLE 7.2A
HAIR CONCENTRATIONS OF NICOTINE AND COTININE IN
WOMEN AND THEIR NEWBORN INFANTS
Mean (SEM)* Mean (SEM)
Concentration of Concentration of
Nicotine (ng/ml) Cotinine (ng/ml)
Active smoking women (n=36) 19.2 (4.9) 6.3 (4.0)
Newborn of active smoking women 2.4 (0.9) 2.8 (0.8)
Passive smoking womena (n=23)
3.2 (0.8) 0.9 (0.3)
Newborn of passive smoking women 0.28 (0.05) 0.6 (0.15)b
Nonsmoking women (n=35) 1.2 (0.4) 0.3 (0.06)
Newborn of nonsmoking women 0.4 (0.09) 0.26 (0.04)
Reference: Eliopoulos et al. (1994)
a Defined as
regular and steady gestational exposure to other person’s cigarette smoke, either at
home or in the workplace.
b p< 0.01 when compared to newborns of active smoking women
and newborns of nonsmokers.
* (SEM) =
Standard error of the mean.
TABLE 7.2B
4-AMINOBIPHENYL HEMOGLOBIN ADDUCT CONCENTRATIONS IN PREGNANT WOMEN AND FETUSES BY EXPOSURE
TO TOBACCO SMOKE
Mean Standard
Concentration Deviation
(pg/g of hemoglobin)
Nonsmoking pregnant women
a (n=40) 22
8
Smoking pregnant women (n=15) 183 108
Nonsmoking women by levels of
exposure to passive smoking based
on nicotine concentrationsb,c
µg/m3
<0.5 (n = 7) 17.6 2.4
0.5 - 1.9 (n = 20) 20.8 2.0
>2.0 (n = 9) 27.8 1.4
Fetuses of nonsmoking mothersb (n = 40) 17 13
Fetuses of smoking mothers (n=16) 92 54
a
Reference: Coghlin et al. (1991)
b Reference:
Hammond et al. (1993)
c This
represented weekly average nicotine concentrations measured during the third trimester
when each subject wore a lightweight monitor. Nonsmoking women in this study were the same
nonsmoking pregnant women reported in Coghlin et al. 1991.
TABLE 7.2C
COTININE AND PAH-ALBUMIN LEVELS IN MOTHERS
AND THEIR PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Mean (SE) *
Mean (SE) PAH-
Cotinine (ng/ml) albumin (fmol/m g)
Level Level
Active smoking women (n=31) 170 (21.2) 0.80 (0.15)
Preschool children of 4.14 (0.54) 0.35 (0.07)
active smoking women
Passive smoking women a (n=32) 1.64 (0.97) 0.49 (0.08)
Preschool children of 0.87 (0.20) b 0.18 (0.04)c
passive smoking women
Nonsmoking women (n=24) 0.96 (0.79) 0.31 (0.08)
Preschool children of 0.25 (0.12) 0.15 (0.02)
non-smoking women
Reference: Crawford et al. (1994)
Abbreviations: PAH = polyaromatic hydrocarbon; SE = standard error
a Exposure
to ETS at home from other household members and visitors.
b Levels in preschool children in households with ETS exposure
were significantly higher
(p <0.01) than those in children in nonsmoking households.
c Levels in
preschool children in households with ETS exposure were not significantly higher than
those in children in nonsmoking households.
* (SE) = Standard
error
TABLE 7.3
MATERNAL SMOKING DURING INDEX PREGNANCY AND RISK OF
ALL CHILDHOOD CANCERS COMBINED
Cohort Studies # Cases Smoking Odds Ratio (95% CI)
(Age of Subjects) Habits for Maternal Smoking
(cig/day)
Neutel and Buck, 1970 34 No 1.0
(Age <10) 30 Yes 1.3 (0.8 - 2.2)
Pershagen et al., 1992 230 No 1.0
(Age <5) 61 <10 1.04 (0.8 - 1.4)
36 >10 0.92 (0.6 - 1.3)
Case-Control # Cases/ Smoking Odds Ratio (95% CI)
Studies # Controls Habits for Maternal Smoking
(Age of Subjects) (cig/day)
Stjernfeldt et al., 1986 177/220 0 1.0
(Age <16) 30/35 1-9 1.07 (0.6 - 1.8)
73/58 10+ 1.56 (1.1 - 2.3)
McKinney et al., 1986 555/1100
a 0 1.0
(Age <15) 1-10 1.12 (0.9 - 1.5)
11+ 0.84 (0.7 - 1.1)
Buckley et al., 1986 1814/720a 0 1.0
(Age <15) 1-9 1.31 (0.9 - 1.9)
10+ 0.97 (0.8 - 1.2)
Golding et al., 1990b 13/61 <5 1.0
(Age <10) 20/38 >5 2.47 (1.2 - 5.1)
John et al., 1991 223/196a 0 1.0
(Age <14) 1-10 1.4 (0.7 - 2.7)
11+ 1.5 (0.8 - 2.7)
a
Numbers represent total cases/controls. Case/control distribution of maternal smoking by
case/control status was not presented.
b
Case-cohort study.
TABLE 7.4
STUDY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR U.S. CASE-CONTROL STUDIES
OF LUNG CANCER AND ETS PUBLISHED SINCE 1991
| |
Stockwell et al. (1992) |
Brownson et al. (1992) |
Fontham et al.
(1994) |
Kabat et al.
(1995) |
| Area |
Central Florida |
Missouri |
5 U.S. metropolitan areas |
4 U.S. cities |
| Accrual Period |
1987-1991 |
1986-1991 |
1985-1991 |
1983-1990 |
Sample size1
cases
controls |
210 (F)
301 (F) |
432 (F)
1166 (F) |
653 (F)
1253 (F) |
69 (F), 41 (M)
187 (F), 117 (M)
|
| Ages |
NA (% by birth year
groupings provided) |
30-84 |
20-79 |
not specified |
Source of cases
|
Florida Cancer
Registry |
Missouri Cancer
Registry |
All hospital/registries in specific geographic
areas
|
6 hospitals in the
4 cities |
Source of controls
|
RDD |
DMV, HCFA |
RDD, HCFA |
other hospital
patients |
| Matching variables of lifetime nonsmoking controls |
NA |
age |
age, area, & ethnicity
|
age, race, hospital,
date of interview
|
| Percent of self-respondents cases
controls |
33
100 |
34*
100 |
63
100 |
100
100 |
| Mode of data collection |
in-person, telephone, mailed questionnaires |
telephone |
in-person |
in-person |
| % Histologic confirmation |
100% |
76%** |
100%** |
100% |
| % adenocarcinoma |
61% |
66% |
76% |
NA |
| Definition of lifetime nonsmoker |
smoked for a total of < 6 months or <100
cigarettes in their lifetime |
not described |
<100 cigarettes, no use of other tobacco
for> 6 mos |
<365 cigarettes over lifetime |
| Verification of nonsmoking status |
multistep- medical record, physician, at
initial contact & interview |
at interview |
multistep- medical record, physician, at
initial contact & interview |
at interview |
Biological markers
|
none |
none |
urinary cotinine |
none |
1 Sample size of lifetime nonsmokers in study
* presented for nonsmokers and ex-smokers combined
** confirmed by independent histologic review
Abbreviations: F-females, M-males, NA-not available, RDD-random digit dialing,
DMV-Department of Motor Vehicle, HCFA-Health Care Financing Administration
TABLE 7.5
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK OF LUNG CANCER IN LIFETIME NONSMOKING FEMALES
AND EXPOSURE TO SPOUSAL SMOKING
Study |
Exposure Status |
Adjusted
Odds ratio
(95% CI)
for exposed |
Years exposed /
Amount smoked
by spouse |
Odds ratio
(95% CI)
for yrs exp/amt smoked by spouse |
| Stockwell et al. (1992) |
Spouse smoked a
no
yes
|
AOR a
1.0
1.6 (0.8-3.0)
|
Smoke-years in adult household (spouse
and others) a
< 22
23-39
40+ |
AOR a
1.6 (0.8-3.2)
1.4 (0.7-2.9)
2.4 (1.1-5.3) |
| Brownson et al. (1992) |
Spouse smoked Cases* Controls*
never 213 568
ever 218 598
|
AOR b
1.0
1.0 (0.8-1.2)
|
Cigarette pack-years cases controls
0 213 568
0-15 32 128
15-40 54 200
40+ 110 216 |
AOR b
1.0
0.7 (0.5-1.1)
0.7 (0.5-1.0)
1.3 (1.0-1.7) |
|
Fontham et al. (1994) |
Spouse cases exposed/ controls exp smoked
total cases /total controls
any type
tobacco 433/651 766/1253
cigarettes 366/648 691/1253
cigars 85/641 138/1253
pipes 86/640 158/1253 |
AOR c
1.29 (1.04-1.60)
1.18 (0.96-1.46)
1.25 (0.92-1.71)
1.19 (0.88-1.60) |
By pack-years of exposure
to spouses cases* controls*
0 267 562
< 15.0 146 300
15.1- 39.9 92 190
40.0-79.9 80 126
80.0+ 24 27 |
AOR c
1.00
1.08 (0.86-1.39)
1.04 (0.76-1.42)
1.36 (0.97-1.91)
1.79 (0.99-3.25) |
| Kabat et al. (1995) |
Males Spouse smoked: cases/controls*
no 28 / 79
yes 11 / 19
Females
Spouse smoked: cases/controls*
no 26 / 71
yes 41 / 102 |
AOR d
1.0
1.60 (0.67-3.82)
1.0
1.08 (0.60-1.94) |
Males Spouse smoked: cases/controls*
1-10 cigs/day 5 / 17
11+ cigs/day 5 / 2
Females
Spouse smoked: cases/controls*
1-10 cigs/day 17 / 50
11+ cigs/day 12 / 28 |
AOR d
0.74 (0.24-2.23)
7.48 (1.35-41.36)
0.82 (0.42-1.61)
1.06 (0.49-2.30) |
a Distribution of cases and controls was not presented; ORs adjusted for age,
race, and eduction; ORs are from Table 2 of Stockwell et al. (1992).
b Adjusted for age, previous lung disease; ORs are from Table 2 of Brownson et
al. (1992).
c Adjusted for age, race, study area, education, fruits & vegetables &
supplemental vitamin index, dietary cholesterol, family history of lung cancer,
and employment in high-risk occupations; ORs are from Table 3 of Fontham et al. (1994).
d Adjusted for age, years of education, and type of hospital; ORs are from Table
4 of Kabat et al. (1995).
* The number of cases and controls by intensity of exposure may not add up to the total
numbers of subjects due to missing values.
TABLE 7.6
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK OF LUNG CANCER AND
ETS EXPOSURES FROM PARENTS AND OTHER HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS
Study/study area |
Sex |
ETS exposure |
Cases/
Controls |
Odds Ratio
(95% CI)
for exposed |
STUDIES CONDUCTED IN THE U.S.
|
Janerich et al. (1990)
/New York |
M, F |
Smoker-years in childhood/adolescence
0
1-24
25+
|
37 68
82 94
52 29 |
1.0
1.09 (0.68-1.73)
2.07 (1.16-3.68) |
Stockwell et al. (1992)
/Central Florida
|
F |
(Distributions by exposure not presented)
mother
father
siblings
During childhood/adolescence
from parents and siblings
(in yrs)
< 18
18-21
22+ |
210 301
|
1.6 (0.6-4.3)
1.2 (0.6-2.3)
1.7 (0.8-3.9)
1.6 (0.7-3.6)
1.1 (0.5-2.6)
2.4 (1.1-5.4) |
Brownson et al. (1992)
/Missouri
|
F |
During childhood from parents
never
ever
During childhood from any household members
never
ever |
357 877
74 289
323 802
108 364 |
1.0
0.7 (0.5-0.9)
1.0
0.8 (0.6-1.1) |
Fontham et al. (1994)
/Five U.S. areas |
F |
During childhood
father
no
yes
mother
no
yes
Childhood household exposure
(in yrs.)
0
1-17
18+
|
304 699
299 556
76 161
548 1079
148 444
95 291
146 485
|
1.00
0.83 (0.67-1.02)
1.00
0.86 (0.62-1.18)
1.00
0.99 (0.73-1.35)
0.89 (0.67-1.16)
|
TABLE 7.6 (continued)
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK OF LUNG CANCER AND
ETS EXPOSURES FROM PARENTS AND OTHER HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS
Study/study area |
Sex |
ETS exposure |
Cases/
Controls |
Odds Ratio
(95% CI)
for exposed |
Kabat et al. (1995)
/Four U.S. cities |
M
F
M
F |
Childhood exposure
no
yes
#smokers: 1
#smokers: 2+
no
yes
#smokers: 1
#smokers: 2+
Adulthood household exposure
no
yes
#smokers: 1
#smokers: 2+
no
yes
#smokers: 1
#smokers: 2+ |
15 41
25 76
18 53
7 22
22 81
47 106
39 82
8 23
28 83
13 34
6 28
7 5
26 68
43 119
34 93
9 25 |
1.00
0.90 (0.43-1.89)
1.12 (0.46-2.70)
1.13 (0.34-3.75)
1.00
1.55 (0.95-2.79)
1.75 (0.91-3.35)
1.27 (0.43-3.78)
1.00
1.13 (0.53-2.45)
0.64 (0.19-2.13)
4.15 (1.34-12.87)
1.00
0.95 (0.53-1.67)
0.96 (0.50-1.84)
0.94 (0.34-2.63) |
Wu et al. (1985)
/Los Angeles |
F |
Parents smoked
no
yes |
18 29
11 33 |
1.0
0.6 (0.2-1.7) |
Kabat and Wynder
(1984)
/U.S.A.
|
M
F |
Current ETS exposure at home
no
yes
no
yes |
19 20
6 5
37 36
16 17 |
1.00
1.26 (0.33-4.83)
1.00
0.92 (0.40-2.08) |
| Kabat et al. (1990) |
M
F |
Family member smoked
no
yes
no
yes |
15 36
21 69
17 61
36 77 |
1.00
0.73 (0.34-1.59)
1.00
1.68 (0.86-3.27) |
| STUDIES CONDUCTED IN ASIA |
Sobue (1990)
/Japan |
F |
During childhood
father
no
yes
mother
no
yes
Other household member
no
yes |
35 143
109 588
127 668
17 63
113 587
31 114 |
1.00
0.79 (0.52-1.21)
1.00
1.33 (0.74-2.37)
1.00
1.18 (0.76-1.84) |
TABLE 7.6 (continued)
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN RISK OF LUNG CANCER AND
ETS EXPOSURES FROM PARENTS AND OTHER HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS
Study
/study area |
Sex |
ETS exposure |
Cases/
Controls |
Odds Ratio
(95% CI)
for exposed |
Shimizu et al. (1988)
/Japan |
F |
During childhood and/or
adult life (distribution of exposure presented for controls)father
mother
father-in-law
mother-in-law
brother(s) or sister(s)
son(s) or daughter(s)
|
|
1.1 a
4.0 (p<0.05)
3.2 (p<0.05)
0.8
0.8
0.8 |
Gao et al. (1987)
/Shanghai |
F |
Lived with a smoker during childhood |
|
1.1 (0.7-1.7) |
Koo et al. (1987)
/Hong Kong |
F |
# cohabitants who smoked
(included spouse, parents, in-laws,
children, or other cohabitants)
0
1
2+
|
27 49
48 68
13 20
|
1.0
1.73 (0.6-6.4)
1.35 (0.6-5.0) |
Wu-Williams et al. (1990)
/North China |
F |
father smoked
no
yes
mother smoked
no
yes |
335 352
182 250
298 410
119 192
|
1.0
1.1 (0.8-1.4)
1.0
0.9 (0.6-1.1) |
| STUDIES CONDUCTED IN EUROPE |
Pershagen et al. (1986)
/Sweden |
F |
parents smoked
no
yes |
9 18
38 76
|
1.0
1.0 (0.4-2.3)
|
Svensson et al. (1989)
/Sweden |
F |
father smoked
no
yesmother smoked
no
yes
|
19 98
12 71
19 98
3 5 |
1.0
0.9 (0.4-2.3)
1.0
3.3 (0.5-18.8) |
a Shimizu et al. reported p values for findings, but did not report
confidence intervals, and confidence intervals could not be calculated from the reported
information.
TABLE 7.7
STUDIES ON ETS EXPOSURE AT THE WORKPLACE AND LUNG CANCER
AMONG LIFETIME NONSMOKING SUBJECTS
| Study/
Year of study |
Questions on
ETS exposure |
#unexposed/
#exposed
cases |
#unexposed/
#exposed
controls |
OR (95% CI)
for exposed |
| STUDIES IN U.S. |
Kabat & Wynder et al. (1984)
1961-80 |
current or last job males
females |
7/18
27/26 |
14/11
22/31 |
3.3 (1.0-10.4)
0.7 (0.3-1.5) |
Garfinkel et al. (1985)
1971-81 |
#hrs/day exposed to smoke of others at work:
past 5 years.
Past 25 years. |
80/14
42/34 |
262/52
135/118 |
0.88 (0.7-1.2)
0.93 (0.7-1.2) |
Wu et al. (1985)
1981-82 |
# years exposed at each job |
13/16 |
31/31 |
1.3 (0.5-3.3) |
Janerich et al. (1990)
1982-84 |
# smokers at work (lifetime), amount of time
working with smokers |
NA |
NA |
no association |
Brownson et al. (1992)
1986-91 |
current/most recent job, exposed to
other’s smoke |
NA |
NA |
no association overall 1.2 (0.9-1.7)a |
Stockwell et al. (1992)
1987-91 |
not described |
NA |
NA |
no association |
Fontham et al. (1994)
1985-91 |
# years exposed at each job (lifetime years of
exposure at work) By years of exposure
0
1-15
16-30
31+ |
224/385
cases
224
213
118
54 |
491/756
controls
491
450
223
83 |
1.39 (1.1-1.7)b
1.00 c
1.30 (1.01-1.67)
1.40 (1.04-1.88)
1.86 (1.24-2.78)b |
Kabat et al. (1995)
1983-1990 |
four (4) jobs that lasted
1 year or moremales
females |
18/23
23/35 |
52/65
64/85 |
1.02 (0.50-2.09)
1.15 (0.62-2.13) |
| STUDIES IN UK AND GREECE |
Lee et al. (1986)
1977-82 |
timing of job not specified, exposure as no,
little, a lot males
females |
3/7
12/3 |
40/57
113/47 |
1.61 (0.4-6.6)
0.63 (0.2-2.3) |
Kalandidi et al. (1990)
1987-89 |
current/last job
#smokers at work |
24/65 |
40/78 |
1.39 (0.8-2.5) |
STUDIES IN ASIA
|
Koo et al. (1987)
1981-83 |
any ETS exposure at work
(all jobs) |
NA |
NA |
0.91 |
Shimizu et al. (1988)
1982-85 |
most recent/current job, any smokers at work |
NA |
NA |
1.2 |
Wu-Williams et al. (1990)
1985-87 |
exposure at each job |
187/230 |
301/301 |
1.2 (0.9-1.6) |
a For highest quartile of exposure
b p<0.01
c Trend, p = 0.001
TABLE 7.8
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN PASSIVE SMOKE EXPOSURE AND RISK OF NASAL SINUS CANCER IN NONSMOKERS
Studies Exposure to Relative Risk (95% CI)
Passive Smoking
Cohort Studies
Hirayama (1984) Spouse's smoking
in cig/day
No (5) a 1.0
Exsmoker or Smokers
1-14 (9) 1.7 (0.7 - 4.2)
15 - 19 (4) 2.0 (0.6 - 6.3)
20+ (10) 2.6 (1.0 - 6.3)
Case-Control Studies
Fukuda and Shibata (1990) # Smokers in household
0 (11/35)
b 1.0
1 (15/34) 1.4 (0.6 - 3.5)
2+ (9/5) 5.7c
(1.7 - 19.4)
1+ (24/39) 2.0 (0.8 - 4.5)
Zheng et al. (1993) Ever exposed d
No 1.0
Yes 3.0 (1.0 - 8.9)
a Number of nasal sinus cancer deaths.
b Number of cases/controls
c p for trend = 0.02.
d Number of cases/controls by exposure
category was not presented.
Table 7.9
Relationship Between Active and Passive Smoke Exposure and Risk of Cervical Cancer
# Cases/# Controls Passive Smoking
Study Cervical Cytology Active Smoking (Among Never Smokers)
(among cases)
CA/CO Adj. ORa Hrs/dayb CA/CO Adj. ORa
Slattery 266 cases/408 Never 81/305 1.0 None NA 1.0
et al., 1989 controls (cases: Exsmoker 37/48 1.4 (0.8 - 2.5) 0.1 - 0.9 NA 1.1 (0.5
- 2.9)
78% carcinoma Current smoker 148/55 3.4 (2.1 - 5.6) 1.0 - 2.9 NA 1.6 (0.5 - 4.7)
in-situ, 22% >3.0 NA 3.4 (1.2 - 9.5)
invasive cancer)
At Home
CA/CO Adj. ORc Yrs Exposure CA/CO Adj. ORc
Coker 103 cases/268 Never 37/170 1.0 Not exposed 9/49 1.0
et al., 1992 controls (All Ever smoked 66/96 1.7 (0.9 - 3.3) <17 yrs 18/52 1.5
(0.5 - 4.0)
biopsy-confirmed Current smoker 66/49 3.4 (1.7 - 7.0) >18 yrs 9/69 0.4 (0.1 -
1.3)
cervical
intraepithelial
neoplasia,
class II or III)
At work
Yrs Exposure
Not exposed 28/132 1.0
1-4 yrs 6/21 1.7 (0.5 - 5.1)
>5 yrs 2/16 0.4 (0.1 - 2.5)
a Adjusted for age, church attendance, education, and number of sexual partners of the
women.
b Number of hours of exposure per day inside and outside of the home; NA = not
available
c Adjusted for age, years of education, race, number of pap smears, number of partners,
and genital warts.
Table 7.10
nicotine and cotinine measured in the Cervical Mucus of smokers,
passive smokers, and nonsmokers
Levels (ng/ml) of
Nicotine Cotinine
Sasson et al., 1985 a
Smokers (n = 10) 740 316
Nonsmokers (n = 8) 16 3
Hellberg et al., 1988 a
Smokers (n = 17) 1056 1061
Nonsmokers with ETS exposure
Yesb (n = 4) 20 51
No (n = 14) 43 78
Levels of Nicotine (ng/ml)
Mean Median Range
Jones et al., 1991 c
Smokers (n=31) 34.3 11.8 2.8 - 383.4
Nonsmokers with
ETS exposure d
at home (n=32) 0.1 0.8 <0.2 - 8.2
outside of home (n = 42) NAf 0.4 <0.2 - 5.2
none (n = 70) NA 0.2 <0.2 - 3.8
McCann et al., 1992 c
Smokers (n=25) 107.2 56 4 - 358
Nonsmokers with
ETS exposured
Yese (n = 12) 3.6 3.5
<0.2 - 12
No (n = 12) 3.9 3.5g <0.2 - 14
a
Cervical mucus collected using aspiration methods.
b Exposed at
home or work, time of passive smoke exposure relative to specimen collection not
specified.
c Cervical
mucus collected using cervical flush techniques.
d Passive
smoke exposure in the last 24 hours.
e Nonsmokers
with ETS exposure at home or at work.
f NA = not
available.
g Excluded
one outlier who was usually exposed to passive smoking several hours/day, but had no
exposure within the last 24 hours.
Table 7.11
Passive Smoking and Bladder Cancer Among Nonsmokers
Males Females
# Exposed # Exposed
Cases/Controls OR (95% CI) Cases/Controls OR (95% CI)
Kabat et al. (1986)
a
Exposed to passive smoking
At home 6/10 1.5 (0.5, 4.5) 6/13 0.6 (0.5, 1.2)
At work or in transportation 11/25 0.7 (0.2, 1.8) 6/5 2.5 (0.6, 10.1)
Burch et al. (1989)b
Exposed to passive smoking
At home 37/72 0.9 (0.5 - 2.0) 66/90 0.8 (0.3 - 1.7)
At work 25/45 1.0 (0.5 - 1.9) 26/38 0.9 (0.5 - 1.8)
a Total
number of nonsmokers were: males - 23 cases, 44 controls; females - 17 cases, 28 controls.
b Total
number of nonsmokers were: males - 61 cases, 112 controls; females - 81 cases, 105
controls.
Table 7.12
Mean Levels of Hemoglobin Adducts of 4- and 3- Aminobiphenyls
in Nonsmokers
4-ABP 3-ABP
(pg/g Hb) (pg/g Hb)
Exsmokers (at baseline) 130.4 16.0
Exsmokers (after stopping smoking 33.3 1.7
for two months)
Nonsmokers
ETS exposure (-) a and 45.9 1.2
Cotinine level (-)
ETS exposure (+)b and 49.2 1.9
Cotinine level (+)
Reference: MaClure et al. (1989)
a Based on
44 subjects - 15 subjects had low levels of self-reported ETS exposure and no detectable
cotinine levels; 29 subjects had no reported ETS exposure and no detectable cotinine
levels.
b Based on
13 subjects - 7 subjects had low levels of self-reported ETS exposure and detectable
cotinine levels, 6 subjects had high levels of self-reported ETS exposure and detectable
cotinine levels. The 6 subjects who reported high exposure to ETS showed the highest mean
levels of 4-ABP (54 pg/g) and 3-ABP (2.4 pg/g) and median levels of 4-ABP (48 pg/g) and
3-ABP (2.6 pg/g).
Table 7.13
Mean Levels of 4-ABP Hemoglobin Adducts (pg/g of Hemoglobin)
Among Smokers and Nonsmokers by Acetylator Phenotype
Acetylator Phenotype
Slow Fast
Black-tobacco smokers (n=16) 175.0 117.5
Blond-tobacco smokers (n=31) 111.8 86.4
Nonsmokers (n=50) 31.7 19.4
Exposed to ETS
No (n=35) 30.4 12.3
Yes (n=15) 34.8 33.6
Reference: Bartsch et al. (1990)
Table 7.14
Brain TumorS in Children and Exposure to parent's Smoking
Study # Cases/ OR for Smoking Habits of
(Age of Subjects) Controls Mother Father
continued smoking during
pregnancy a
Gold et al., 1979 84/73 5.0 No data
(Age <20) (population)
84/78 ¥
(hospital)
During pregnancy During pregnancy
Preston-Martin 209/209 1.1 1.5a
et al., 1982
(Age <25)
# cig/day during pregnancy
Stjernfeldt et al., 1986 43/340 0 1-9 10+ cig/day
(Age <16) 1.0 1.0 0.9 No data
# cig/day during pregnancy
0 1-9 10+ cig/day
McKinney and 78/156 1.0 1.1 1.0 No data
Stiller, 1986
(Age <15)
During pregnancy During pregnancy
Howe et al., 1989 74/132 1.4 1.1
(Age <20)
During first trimester 12 months prior to birth
John et al., 1991 48/196 1.0 1.4
(Age <14)
Mother’s smoking alone Father’s smoking alone
* 1.9 (0.9 - 4.2)
at 2-3 mos of pregnancy
0 <10 10+ cig/day
Pershagen et al., 1992 81
b 1.0 0.9 1.1 No data
(Age <5)
a p<0.05
b cohort study
c OR if data obtained from mother
d OR if data obtained from father
e Cases restricted to astrocytoma
* 0 exposed cases, 8 exposed controls
Table 7.14 (Continued)
Brain TumorS in Children and Exposure to parent's Smoking
Study # Cases/ OR for Smoking Habits of
(Age of Subjects) Controls Mother Father
Gold et al., 1993 361/1083 Ever smoked Ever smoked
(Age <18) 0.9 1.1
During yr of birth During yr of birth
0 <1 pack/day pack/day 0 <1 pack/day pack/day
1.0 0.8 1.0 1.0 0.7 1.1
2 yrs before birth 2 yrs before birth
0 <1 pack/day pack/day 0 <1 pack/day pack/day
1.0 0.8 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.2
Mother’s smoking alone Father’s smoking alone
1.1 0.9
McCredie et al., 1994 82/104 During pregnancy During pregnancy
(Age < 14) 1.3 2.2 a
4.2c
1.1d
Kuijten et al., 1990 163 e/163 During pregnancy During pregnancy
(Age < 14) 1.0 0.8
a p<0.05
b cohort study
c OR if data obtained from mother
d OR if data obtained from father
e Cases restricted to astrocytoma
* 0 exposed cases, 8 exposed controls
Table 7.15
Maternal or Parental Smoking During Pregnancy and
Childhood Leukemia
Cohort Studies # Cases Smoking OR (95% CI) for OR (95% CI) for
(Age of Subjects) (Type of Habits (cig/day) Maternal Smoking Paternal Smoking
Leukemia)
Pershagen et al., 1992 All Leukemia 2-3 mos of pregnancy
(Age <5) 72 No 1.0 Not available
18 1-9 0.9 (0.6-1.6)
9 10+ 0.7 (0.4-1.5)
21 (lymphatic) Yes 0.8 (0.5-1.3)
6 (myeloid) Yes 1.6 (0.6-4.8)
Case-Control # Cases/ Smoking OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI)
Studies (Age of Subjects) # Controls Habits (cig/day) Maternal Smoking Paternal Smoking
Van Steensel-Moll 519/507 Yes, yr before
et al.,1985
(Age <15) (ALL) a Pregnancy 1.0 (0.8-1.3) Not available
Yes, during
pregnancy 1.0 (0.7-1.3)
During pregnancy
Stjernfeldt et al., 1986 132/340 1-9 1.3 (0.7-2.6) Not available
(Age <16) (ALL) 10+ 2.1 (1.3-3.3)
During pregnancy
McKinney et al., 1986 171/342 1-10 1.0 (0.6-1.7) No association
(Age <15) (78 ALL, 11+ 0.6 (0.4-1.0)
93 non-ALL)
During pregnancy
Buckley et al., 1986 742/740 1-9 1.0 (0.6-1.5) No association
(Age <15) (ALL) 10+ 0.9 (0.7-1.1)
Magnani et al., 1990 142/307 Smoking up to child's birth
(Not specified) (ALL) Yes 0.7 (0.5-1.1) 0.9 (0.6-1.5)
1-15 cig/day 0.6 (0.4-1.0) 0.9 (0.5-1.6)
16+ cig/day 1.0 (0.4-2.7) 0.9 (0.6-1.5)
22/307
(non-ALL) Yes 2.0 (0.8-4.8) 0.9 (0.3-2.1)
a ALL = Acute lymphocytic leukemias,
non-ALL = non acute lymphocytic leukemias.
Table 7.15 (continued)
Maternal or Parental Smoking During Pregnancy and
Childhood Leukemia
Case-Control Studies # Cases/ Smoking OR (95% CI) for OR (95% CI) for
(Age of Subjects) # Controls Habits (cig/day) Maternal Smoking Paternal Smoking
(Type of
Leukemia)
During 3 trimesters During pregnancy
John et al., 1991 73/196 1-10 2.0 (0.7-5.9) 2.6 (0.9-7.9)
(Age <14) (ALL) a 11-20 2.9 (1.2-6.8) 1.6 (0.7-3.7)
21+ 1.6 (0.7-4.0)
Parent smoking in absence of other parent
2.9 (0.8 - 10.3) 1.7 (0.7 - 3.8)
(non-ALL) During 3 trimesters During pregnancy
Yes 0.6 (0.1-3.0) 0.8 (0.2-2.3)
Severson et al., 1993 187/187 During pregnancy
(Age < 18) (acute Yes 1.2 (0.8 - 1.9) No association
myeloid
leukemia)
a ALL = Acute lymphocytic leukemias,
non-ALL = non acute lymphocytic leukemias.
Table 7.16
Association Between Exposure to Passive Smoking and Risk of Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma and
Lymphoma in Children
Studies Exposure to Passive Smoking Relative Risk 95% CI
Stjernfeldt et al., 1986 Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma (n = 16)
Mother's smoking during pregnancy
0 (cig/day) 1.0
1-9 1.9 (0.3 - 6.7)
10+ 2.1 (0.7 - 6.4)
Hodgkins Lymphoma (n = 15)
0 (cig/day) 1.0
1-9 1.1 (0.2 - 4.9)
10+ 0.3 (0.1 - 2.2)
Buckley et al., 1986 Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma (n = 169)
Mother's smoking during pregnancy
0 (cig/day) 1.0
1-9 0.8 (0.3 - 1.8)
10+ 1.0 (0.7 - 1.4)
Magnani et al., 1990 Non-Hodgkins Lymphoma (n = 19)
Mother's smoking up to child’s birth 1.7 (0.7 - 4.5)
Father's smoking up to child’s birth 6.7 (1.0 - 43.4)
McKinney and Lymphomas (n = 74)
Stiller, 1986 Mother's smoking during pregnancy
0 (cig/day) 1.0
1-10 1.9 (0.9 - 4.0)
11+ 1.0 (0.5 - 2.1)
John et al., 1991 Lymphoma (n = 26)
Mother's smoking
- Three months prior
to conception 1.9 (0.7 - 5.2)
- First trimester of
pregnancy 2.5 (0.9 - 7.0)
- All three trimesters
of pregnancy 2.7 (1.0 - 7.6)
Father's smoking during pregnancy 1.9 (0.7 - 4.8)
Pershagen et al., 1992 Hematopoietic and Lymphatic
excluding leukemia (n = 30)
Mother's smoking at 2-3 months of pregnancy
0 (cig/day) 1.0
1-9 2.4 (1.0 - 5.5)
10+ 1.1 (0.3 - 3.6)
|
