74
Guide to the scientific literature
on potential medical uses of Cannabis and the cannabinoids
David W. Pate
International Hemp Assocation
P.O. Box 75007, 1070AA Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Pate, D.W. 1995. Guide to the scientific
literature on potential medical uses of Cannabis and the cannabinoids. Journal
of the International Hemp Association 2(2): 74-76.
Marijuana and its component cannabinoids have been demonstrated to
affect many medical conditions. However, original sources on this topic are often
difficult to access, as they are diffusely distributed across a voluminous scientific
literature. This bibliography gathers most of the primary (and some of the secondary)
citations available, categorized according to medical indication.
Introduction
Widespread reports of self-medication with Cannabis have aroused
medical and scientific interest in the potential application of cannabinoids for the
treatment of a variely of diseases. Some limited human trials or case studies have
revealed the safety and efficacy of this class of compounds for the symptomatic treatment
of a broad number of ailments. The results of tests on other animals or in vitro
experiments imply new paths of clinical investigation. The references below represent a
starting point for further inquiry. Included are papers regardless of their experimental
outcome. Not included are citations related to the presently approved uses of THC (i.e
cancer chemotherapy nausea amelioration, AIDS patient appetite stimulation).
Anxiety and Psychosis
- Guimares, F.S. et al., 1990. Anxiolytic effect of cannabidiol in the elevated
plus-maze. Psychopharmacology 100: 558-559.
- Guimares, F.S. et al., 1994. Anxiolytic effect of cannabidiol derivatives in
the elevated plus-maze. Gen. Pharmac. 25: 161-164.
- Zuardi, A.W. et al., 1982. Action of cannabidiol on the anxiety and other
effects produced by delta-9-THC in normal subjects. Psychopharmacology 76:
245-250.
- Zuardi, A.W. et al., 1991. Effects of cannabidiol in animal models predictive
of antipsychotic activity. Psychopharmacology 104: 260-264.
- Zuardi, A.W. et al., 1993. Effects of ipsapirone and cannabidiol on human
experimental anxiety. J. Psychophamacol. 7: 82-88.
Asthma
- Gong, H. et al., 1984. Acute and subacute bronchial effects of oral
cannabinoids. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 35: 26-32.
- Graham, J.D.P., 1986. The bronchodilator action of cannabinoids. In Cannabinoids as
Therapeutic Agents, R. Mechoulam, Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 147-158.
- Hartley, J.P., et al., 1978. Bronchodilator effect of delta-9-THC. Br. J.
Clin. Pharmacol. 5: 523.
- Karniol, I.G., et al., 1974. Cannabidiol interferes with the effects of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. Eur. J. Pharmac. 28: 172.
- Tashkin, D., et al., 1973. Acute pulmonary physiologic effects of smoked
marijuana and oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy young men. New Engl. J.
Med. 289: 336-341.
- Tashkin, D., et al., 1976. Acute effects of smoked marijuana on airway dynamics
in spontaneous and experimentally induced bronchial asthma. In The Pharmacology
of Marijuana, Braude and Szara, Eds., Raven Press, New York, pp. 785-799.
- Vachon, L. et al., 1976. Airways respons to aerosolized delta-9-THC preliminary
report. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen, S. and Stillman, R.C.,
Eds., Plenum Press, New York, p. 111.
- Vachon, L. et al., 1976. Airways response to micro-aerosolized delta-9-THC. Chest
70: 444.
- Williams, S.J. et al., 1976. Bronchodilator effect of delta-9-THC administered
by aerosol to asthmatic patients. Thorax 31: 720.
Epilepsy
- Ames, F.R. and Cridland, S., 1986. Anticonvulsant effect of cannabidiol. S. Afr.
Med. J. 69: 14.
- Consroe, P.F. et al., 1975. Anticonvulsant nature of marihuana smoking. J.A.M.A.
234: 306-307.
- Cunha, J.M. et al., 1980. Chronic administration of cannabidiol to healthy
volunteers and epileptic patients. Pharmacology 21: 175-185.
- Davis, J.P. and Ramsey, H.H., 1949. Anti-epileptic action of marijuana-active
substances. Fed. Proc. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 8: 284.
- Feeney, D. 1976. Marihuana use among epileptics. J.A.M.A. 235: 1105.
- Karler, R. and Turkanis, S.A. 1981. The cannabinoids as potential antiepileptics. J.
Clinical Pharmacology 21: 437S-448S.
- Karler, R. et al., 1973. The anti-convulsant activity of cannabidiol and
cannabinol. Life Sci. 13: 1527-1531.
- Karler, R. et al., 1984. Interaction between delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and
kindling by electrical and chemical stimulation in mice. Neuropharmacology 23:
1315-1320.
- Karler, R. et al., 1989. Pentylenetetrazole kindling in mice. Neuropharmacology
28: 775-780.
- Karler, R. et al., 1974. Anticonvulsant properties of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids. Life Sci. 15: 931-947.
- Karler, R. et al., 1986. Prolonged CNS hyperexcitability in mice after a single
exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Neuropharmacology 25: 441-446.
- Karler, R. and Turkanis, S., 1976. The anti-epileptic potential of the cannabinoids. In
The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen and Stillman, Eds., Plenum Press, New York,
pp. 383-396.
- Turkanis, S. et al., 1974. Anti-convulsant properties of cannabinol. Res.
Comm. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 8: 231-246.
Glaucoma
- Colasanti, B.K. 1986. Review: Ocular hypotensive affect of marihuana cannabinoids:
correlate of central action or separate phenomenon. J. Ocular Pharmacology 2(3):
295-304.
- Colasanti, B.K. et al., 1984. Ocular hypotension, ocular toxicity, and
neurotoxicity in response to marijuana extract and cannabidiol. Gen. Pharmacol.
15: 479.
- Colasanti, B.K. et al., 1984. Intraocular pressure, ocular toxicity and
neurotoxicity after administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabichromene. Exp.
Eye Res. 38: 63.
- Colasanti, B.K. et al., 1984. Intraocular pressure, ocular toxicity and
neurotoxicity after administration of cannabinol or cannabigerol. Exp. Eye Res.
39: 231-259.
- Crawford, W. & Merritt, J.C., 1979. Effects of tetrahydrocannabinol on arterial and
intraocular hypertension. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Biopharmacol. 17: 191-196.
- Green, K. and McDonald, T.F., 1987. Ocular toxicology of marijuana: an update. J.
Toxicol.-Cut. and Ocular Toxicol. 6: 309-334.
- Hepler, R.S. and Frank, I.M. 1971. Marihuana smoking and intraocular pressure. J.A.M.A.
217: 1392.
- Hepler, R.S. et at., 1976. Ocular effects of marijuana smoking. In The
Pharmacology of Marijuana, Braude, M.C., and Szara, S., Eds., Raven Press, New York, p.
813.
- Levitt, M. et at., 1981. Physiologic observations in a controlled clinical trial of the
antiemetic effectiveness of 5, 10, and 15 mg of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in cancer
chemotherapy: ophthalmologic implications. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21: 103S.
- Merritt, J.C. et at., 1980. Effect of marijuana on intraocular and blood pressure in
glaucoma. Ophthalmology 87: 222.
- Merritt, J.C. et at., 1981. Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in hypertensive
glaucomas. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 33: 40-41.
- Merritt, J.C. et at., 1981. Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and aqueous dynamics in
glaucoma. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21: 467S-471S.
- Merritt, J.C. et at., 1980. Oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in heterogenous glaucomas.
Ann. Opthalmol. 12: 8.
- Merritt, J.C. et at., 1982. Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol as a potential glaucoma
agent. Glaucoma 4: 253-255.
- Shapiro, D., 1974. The ocular manifestation of the cannabinoids. Ophthalmologia
168: 366-369.
Inflammation and Swelling
- Barret, M.L. et al., 1985. Isolation from Cannabis sativa L. of
Cannflavon-a novel inhibitor or prostaglandin production. Biochem. Pharmacol. 34:
2019.
- Burstein, S.H. et al., 1989. Antagonism to the actions of platelet activating
factor by a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 251: 531-535.
- Evans, A.T. et al., 1987. Actions of Cannabis constituents on enzymes or
arachidonate metabolism: anti-inflammatory potential. Biochem. Pharmacol. 36:
2037-2040.
- Formukong, E.A. et al., 1987. Cannabinoids, the active constituents of Cannabis
sativa L. inhibit both human and rabbit platelet aggregation. Br. J. Pharmacol.
92(S): 601.
- Formukong, E.A. et al., 1989. The inhibitory effects of cannabinoids, the
active constituents of Cannabis sativa L. on human and rabbit platelet
aggregation. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 41: 705-709.
- Formukong, E.A. et al., 1988. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of
constituents of Cannabis sativa L. Inflammation 12: 361-371.
- Sofia, R.D. et al., 1973. Antiedemic and analgesic properties of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol compared with three other drugs. Eur. J. Pharmacol.
35: 7-16.
- Sofia, R.D. et al., 1974. Comparative anti-phlogistic activity of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, hydrocortisone and aspirin in various rat paw edema models. Life
Sci. 15: 251-260.
Microbial Infections
- Blevins, R.D. and Damie, M.R., 1980. The effect of delta-9-THC on Herpes simplex virus
replication. J. Gen. Virol. 49: 427.
- Dahiya, M.S. and Jain, G.C., 1977. Antibacterial activity of cannabidiol and
tetrahydrocannabinol. Indian Drugs Pharm. Ind. 12: 31-34.
- ElSohly, H.N. et al., 1982. Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of certain
cannabichromene and cannabigerol related compounds. J. Pharm. Sci. 71: 1319-1323.
- Ferenczy, L. et at., 1958. An antibacterial preparatum from hemp (Cannabis sativa
L.). Naturwissenschaften. 45: 188.
- Grlic, L., 1962. A comparative study on some chemical and biological characteristics of
various samples of Cannabis resin. Bull. Narc. 14: 37-46.
- Kabelik, J. et al., 1960. Cannabis as a medicament. Bull. Narc.
12: 5.
- Krejci, Z., 1958. Hanf (Cannabis sativa)- Antibiotisches heilmittel. 2.
Methodik und ergebnisse der bakteriologischen untersuchungen und vorlaufige klinische
erfahrungen. Pharmazie 13: 155-164.
- Krejci, Z., 1970. Changes with maturation in amounts of biologically interesting
substances of Cannabis. In The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis,
Proc. Conf., Joyce, C.R.B., Ed., J. & A. Churchill, London, pp. 49-55.
- Krejci, Z., 1961. The problem of substances with antibacterial action: Cannabis
effect. Casop. Lek. Cesk. 43: 1341-1354.
- Martinec, T. and Felklova, M., 1959. Einfluss veraschiedener dungung suf die
antibakterielle aktivitat des hanfes, Cannabis sativa L. Pharmazie 14:
276-279.
- Martinec, T. and Felkiova, M., 1959. Veranderungen der antibakteriellen aktivitat im
verlaus der individuellen entwicklung des hanfes (Cannabis sativa L.). Pharmazie
14: 279-281.
- Radosevic, A. et al., 1962. Antibiotic activity of various types of Cannabis
resin. UN Secretariat Doc. ST/SOA/SER.S/6. 9 Jan. 25.
- Radosevic, A. et al., 1962. Antibiotic activity of various types of Cannabis
resin. Nature 195: 1007-1009.
- Van Kingeren, B. and Ten Ham, M., 1976. Antibacterial activity of delta-9-THC and
cannabidiol. Ant. van Leeuw. J. Microbiol. Serol. 42: 9.
Movement Disorders
- Consroe, P. et al., 1986. Open label evaluation of cannabidiol in dystonic
movement disorders. Int. J. Neurosci. 30: 277-282.
- Consroe, P. et al., 1991. Controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol in
Huntington's disease. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 40: 701-708.
- Frankel, J.P. et al., 1990. Marijuana for Parkinsonian tremor. J. Neurol.
Neurosurg. Psychiatry 53: 436.
- Hemming, M. and Yellowle, P.M., 1993. Effective treatment of Tourette's-Syndrome with
marijuana. J. Psychopharmacol. 7: 389-391.
- Moss, D.E. et al., 1989. Nicotine and cannabinoids as adjuncts to neuroleptics
in the treatment of Tourette syndrome and other motor disorders. Life Sci. 44:
1521-1525.
- Ruchman, M.C., 1988. Role of cannabidiol in the medical treatment of Meige's syndrome. Ear
Nose Throat J. 67: 919.
- Sandyk, R. et al., 1986. Cannabidiol in dystonic movement disorders. Psychiatry
Res. 18: 291.
- Snider, S.R. and Consroe, P., 1984. Treatment of Meige syndrome with cannabidiol. Neurology
34(S1): 147.
- Snider, S.R. and Consroe, P., 1985. Beneficial and adverse effects of cannabidiol in a
Parkinson patient with sinemet-induced dystonic dyskinesia. Neurology 35(S1):
201.
Multiple Sclerosis, Spasticity and other Neuromuscular Disorders
- Clifford, David B., 1983. Tetrahydrocannabinol for tremor in Multiple Sclerosis. Ann.
Neurol. 13: 669-671.
- Dunn, M. and Davis, R., 1974. The perceived effects of marijuana on spinal cord injured
males. Paraplegia 12: 175.
- Elkin, R. et al., 1987. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a novel treatment of
inflammatory demyelination. Fed. Proc. 46: 1378.
- Greenberg, H.S. et al., 1990. Marijuana and its effect on postural stability in
Multiple Sclerosis patients with controls. Neurology 40(S1): 259.
- Hanigan, W.C. et al., 1986. The effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on
human spasticity. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Pharmacol. 39: 198.
- Lyman, W.D. et al., 1989. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: A novel treatment for
experimental autoimmune encephalitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 23: 73-82.
- Malec, J. et al., 1982. Cannabis effect on spasticity in spinal cord
injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab. 63: 116.
- Mauer, M. et al., 1990. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol shows anti-spastic and
analgesic effects in a single case double-blind trial. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin.
Neurosci. 240: 1-4.
- Meinck, H.M. et al., 1989. Effect of cannabinoids on spasticity and ataxia in
Multiple Sclerosis. J. Neurol. 236: 120-122.
- Petro, D. 1980. Marihuana as a therapeutic agent for muscle spasm or spasticity. Psychosomatics
21: 81-85.
- Petro, D. and Ellenberger, C., Jr., 1981. Treatment of human spasticity with
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21: 413S-416S.
- Truong, X.T. and Hanigan, W.C., 1986. Effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on
electromyographic measurements in human spasticity. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Pharmacol.
Therap. 39: 232.
- Ungerleider, J.T. et al., 1987. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the treatment
of spasticity associated with Multiple Sclerosis. Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abuse 7:
39-50.
Niemann-Pick Disease
- Burstein, S. et al., 1984. Stimulation of sphingomyelin hydrolysis by
cannabidiol in fibroblasts from a Niemann-Pick patient. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.
121: 168-173.
Opiate and Alcohol Addiction
- Bhargava, H.N., 1976. Effect of some cannabinoids on naloxone-precipitated abstinence in
morphine-dependent rats. Psychopharmacology 49: 267.
- Carder, B., 1975. Blockage of morphine abstinence by delta-9-THC. Science 190:
590.
- Hine, B. et al., 1975. Morphine-dependent rats: blockage of precipitated
abstinence by THC. Science 187: 443.
- Mikuriya, T., 1970. Cannabis substitution: an adjunctive tool in the treatment
of alcoholism. Med. Times 98: 187-191.
- Rosenberg, C., 1976. The use of marijuana in the treatment of alcoholism. In
The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen and Stillman, Eds., Plenum Press, New York,
pp. 173-185.
- Rosenberg, C.M. et al., 1978. Cannabis in the treatment of alcoholism.
J. Stud. Alcohol 39: 155.
- Scher, J., 1971. Marijuana as an agent in rehabilitating alcoholics. Am. J.
Psychiatry 127: 971-972.
Pain
- Harris, L., 1976. Analgesic and antitumor potential of the cannabinoids. In The
Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen and Stillman, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp.
299-305.
- Milstein, S.L. et al., 1975. Marijuana-produced changes in pain tolerance:
experienced and non-experienced subjects. Int. Pharmacopsychiatry 10: 177-182.
- Noyes, S.J., Jr. and Baram, D.A., 1974. Cannabis analgesia. Compr.
Psychiatry 15: 5.
- Noyes, S.J., Jr. et al., 1975. The analgesic properties of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and codeine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 18: 84-89.
- Noyes, S.J., Jr. et al., 1975. The analgesic effect of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Clin. Pharamacol. 15: 139.
- Volfe, Z. et al., 1985. Cannabinoids block release of serotonin from platelets
induced by plasma from migraine patients. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. Res. 5: 243-246.
- Zeidenberg, P., et al., 1973. Effect of oral administration of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on memory, speech and perception of thermal stimulation:
results with four normal human subjects. Preliminary report. Compr. Psychiatry
14: 549.
Ulcers
- Bateman, D.N., 1987. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and gastric emptying. Br. J. Clin.
Pharmacol. 15: 139.
- Douthwaite, A.H., 1947. Choice of drugs in the treatment of duodenal ulcer. Br. Med.
J. 43: 4514.
- Nalin, D.R. et al., 1978. Cannabis, hypochlrohydria and cholera. Lancet
2: 859.
- Sofia, R.D. et al., 1978. Evaluation of antiulcer activity of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the Shay rat test. Pharmacology 17: 173.