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Guide to the scientific literature
on potential medical uses of Cannabis and the cannabinoids

David W. Pate

International Hemp Assocation
P.O. Box 75007, 1070AA Amsterdam
The Netherlands

   Pate, D.W. 1995. Guide to the scientific literature on potential medical uses of Cannabis and the cannabinoids. Journal of the International Hemp Association 2(2): 74-76.

    Marijuana and its component cannabinoids have been demonstrated to affect many medical conditions. However, original sources on this topic are often difficult to access, as they are diffusely distributed across a voluminous scientific literature. This bibliography gathers most of the primary (and some of the secondary) citations available, categorized according to medical indication.

Introduction

    Widespread reports of self-medication with Cannabis have aroused medical and scientific interest in the potential application of cannabinoids for the treatment of a variely of diseases. Some limited human trials or case studies have revealed the safety and efficacy of this class of compounds for the symptomatic treatment of a broad number of ailments. The results of tests on other animals or in vitro experiments imply new paths of clinical investigation. The references below represent a starting point for further inquiry. Included are papers regardless of their experimental outcome. Not included are citations related to the presently approved uses of THC (i.e cancer chemotherapy nausea amelioration, AIDS patient appetite stimulation).

Anxiety and Psychosis

• Guimares, F.S. et al., 1990. Anxiolytic effect of cannabidiol in the elevated plus-maze. Psychopharmacology 100: 558-559.
• Guimares, F.S. et al., 1994. Anxiolytic effect of cannabidiol derivatives in the elevated plus-maze. Gen. Pharmac. 25: 161-164.
• Zuardi, A.W. et al., 1982. Action of cannabidiol on the anxiety and other effects produced by delta-9-THC in normal subjects. Psychopharmacology 76: 245-250.
• Zuardi, A.W. et al., 1991. Effects of cannabidiol in animal models predictive of antipsychotic activity. Psychopharmacology 104: 260-264.
• Zuardi, A.W. et al., 1993. Effects of ipsapirone and cannabidiol on human experimental anxiety. J. Psychophamacol. 7: 82-88.

Asthma

• Gong, H. et al., 1984. Acute and subacute bronchial effects of oral cannabinoids. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 35: 26-32.
• Graham, J.D.P., 1986. The bronchodilator action of cannabinoids. In Cannabinoids as Therapeutic Agents, R. Mechoulam, Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 147-158.
• Hartley, J.P., et al., 1978. Bronchodilator effect of delta-9-THC. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 5: 523.
• Karniol, I.G., et al., 1974. Cannabidiol interferes with the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. Eur. J. Pharmac. 28: 172.
• Tashkin, D., et al., 1973. Acute pulmonary physiologic effects of smoked marijuana and oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy young men. New Engl. J. Med. 289: 336-341.
• Tashkin, D., et al., 1976. Acute effects of smoked marijuana on airway dynamics in spontaneous and experimentally induced bronchial asthma. In The Pharmacology of Marijuana, Braude and Szara, Eds., Raven Press, New York, pp. 785-799.
• Vachon, L. et al., 1976. Airways respons to aerosolized delta-9-THC preliminary report. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen, S. and Stillman, R.C., Eds., Plenum Press, New York, p. 111.
• Vachon, L. et al., 1976. Airways response to micro-aerosolized delta-9-THC. Chest 70: 444.
• Williams, S.J. et al., 1976. Bronchodilator effect of delta-9-THC administered by aerosol to asthmatic patients. Thorax 31: 720.

Epilepsy

• Ames, F.R. and Cridland, S., 1986. Anticonvulsant effect of cannabidiol. S. Afr. Med. J. 69: 14.
• Consroe, P.F. et al., 1975. Anticonvulsant nature of marihuana smoking. J.A.M.A. 234: 306-307.
• Cunha, J.M. et al., 1980. Chronic administration of cannabidiol to healthy volunteers and epileptic patients. Pharmacology 21: 175-185.
• Davis, J.P. and Ramsey, H.H., 1949. Anti-epileptic action of marijuana-active substances. Fed. Proc. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 8: 284.
• Feeney, D. 1976. Marihuana use among epileptics. J.A.M.A. 235: 1105.
• Karler, R. and Turkanis, S.A. 1981. The cannabinoids as potential antiepileptics. J. Clinical Pharmacology 21: 437S-448S.
• Karler, R. et al., 1973. The anti-convulsant activity of cannabidiol and cannabinol. Life Sci. 13: 1527-1531.
• Karler, R. et al., 1984. Interaction between delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and kindling by electrical and chemical stimulation in mice. Neuropharmacology 23: 1315-1320.
• Karler, R. et al., 1989. Pentylenetetrazole kindling in mice. Neuropharmacology 28: 775-780.
• Karler, R. et al., 1974. Anticonvulsant properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids. Life Sci. 15: 931-947.
• Karler, R. et al., 1986. Prolonged CNS hyperexcitability in mice after a single exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Neuropharmacology 25: 441-446.
• Karler, R. and Turkanis, S., 1976. The anti-epileptic potential of the cannabinoids. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen and Stillman, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 383-396.
• Turkanis, S. et al., 1974. Anti-convulsant properties of cannabinol. Res. Comm. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 8: 231-246.

Glaucoma

• Colasanti, B.K. 1986. Review: Ocular hypotensive affect of marihuana cannabinoids: correlate of central action or separate phenomenon. J. Ocular Pharmacology 2(3): 295-304.
• Colasanti, B.K. et al., 1984. Ocular hypotension, ocular toxicity, and neurotoxicity in response to marijuana extract and cannabidiol. Gen. Pharmacol. 15: 479.
• Colasanti, B.K. et al., 1984. Intraocular pressure, ocular toxicity and neurotoxicity after administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabichromene. Exp. Eye Res. 38: 63.
• Colasanti, B.K. et al., 1984. Intraocular pressure, ocular toxicity and neurotoxicity after administration of cannabinol or cannabigerol. Exp. Eye Res. 39: 231-259.
• Crawford, W. & Merritt, J.C., 1979. Effects of tetrahydrocannabinol on arterial and intraocular hypertension. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Biopharmacol. 17: 191-196.
• Green, K. and McDonald, T.F., 1987. Ocular toxicology of marijuana: an update. J. Toxicol.-Cut. and Ocular Toxicol. 6: 309-334.
• Hepler, R.S. and Frank, I.M. 1971. Marihuana smoking and intraocular pressure. J.A.M.A. 217: 1392.
• Hepler, R.S. et at., 1976. Ocular effects of marijuana smoking. In The Pharmacology of Marijuana, Braude, M.C., and Szara, S., Eds., Raven Press, New York, p. 813.
• Levitt, M. et at., 1981. Physiologic observations in a controlled clinical trial of the antiemetic effectiveness of 5, 10, and 15 mg of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in cancer chemotherapy: ophthalmologic implications. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21: 103S.
• Merritt, J.C. et at., 1980. Effect of marijuana on intraocular and blood pressure in glaucoma. Ophthalmology 87: 222.
• Merritt, J.C. et at., 1981. Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in hypertensive glaucomas. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 33: 40-41.
• Merritt, J.C. et at., 1981. Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and aqueous dynamics in glaucoma. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21: 467S-471S.
• Merritt, J.C. et at., 1980. Oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in heterogenous glaucomas. Ann. Opthalmol. 12: 8.
• Merritt, J.C. et at., 1982. Topical delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol as a potential glaucoma agent. Glaucoma 4: 253-255.
• Shapiro, D., 1974. The ocular manifestation of the cannabinoids. Ophthalmologia 168: 366-369.

Inflammation and Swelling

• Barret, M.L. et al., 1985. Isolation from Cannabis sativa L. of Cannflavon-a novel inhibitor or prostaglandin production. Biochem. Pharmacol. 34: 2019.
• Burstein, S.H. et al., 1989. Antagonism to the actions of platelet activating factor by a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 251: 531-535.
• Evans, A.T. et al., 1987. Actions of Cannabis constituents on enzymes or arachidonate metabolism: anti-inflammatory potential. Biochem. Pharmacol. 36: 2037-2040.
• Formukong, E.A. et al., 1987. Cannabinoids, the active constituents of Cannabis sativa L. inhibit both human and rabbit platelet aggregation. Br. J. Pharmacol. 92(S): 601.
• Formukong, E.A. et al., 1989. The inhibitory effects of cannabinoids, the active constituents of Cannabis sativa L. on human and rabbit platelet aggregation. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 41: 705-709.
• Formukong, E.A. et al., 1988. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of constituents of Cannabis sativa L. Inflammation 12: 361-371.
• Sofia, R.D. et al., 1973. Antiedemic and analgesic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol compared with three other drugs. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 35: 7-16.
• Sofia, R.D. et al., 1974. Comparative anti-phlogistic activity of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, hydrocortisone and aspirin in various rat paw edema models. Life Sci. 15: 251-260.

Microbial Infections

• Blevins, R.D. and Damie, M.R., 1980. The effect of delta-9-THC on Herpes simplex virus replication. J. Gen. Virol. 49: 427.
• Dahiya, M.S. and Jain, G.C., 1977. Antibacterial activity of cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol. Indian Drugs Pharm. Ind. 12: 31-34.
• ElSohly, H.N. et al., 1982. Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of certain cannabichromene and cannabigerol related compounds. J. Pharm. Sci. 71: 1319-1323.
• Ferenczy, L. et at., 1958. An antibacterial preparatum from hemp (Cannabis sativa L.). Naturwissenschaften. 45: 188.
• Grlic, L., 1962. A comparative study on some chemical and biological characteristics of various samples of Cannabis resin. Bull. Narc. 14: 37-46.
• Kabelik, J. et al., 1960. Cannabis as a medicament. Bull. Narc. 12: 5.
• Krejci, Z., 1958. Hanf (Cannabis sativa)- Antibiotisches heilmittel. 2. Methodik und ergebnisse der bakteriologischen untersuchungen und vorlaufige klinische erfahrungen. Pharmazie 13: 155-164.
• Krejci, Z., 1970. Changes with maturation in amounts of biologically interesting substances of Cannabis. In The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis, Proc. Conf., Joyce, C.R.B., Ed., J. & A. Churchill, London, pp. 49-55.
• Krejci, Z., 1961. The problem of substances with antibacterial action: Cannabis effect. Casop. Lek. Cesk. 43: 1341-1354.
• Martinec, T. and Felklova, M., 1959. Einfluss veraschiedener dungung suf die antibakterielle aktivitat des hanfes, Cannabis sativa L. Pharmazie 14: 276-279.
• Martinec, T. and Felkiova, M., 1959. Veranderungen der antibakteriellen aktivitat im verlaus der individuellen entwicklung des hanfes (Cannabis sativa L.). Pharmazie 14: 279-281.
• Radosevic, A. et al., 1962. Antibiotic activity of various types of Cannabis resin. UN Secretariat Doc. ST/SOA/SER.S/6. 9 Jan. 25.
• Radosevic, A. et al., 1962. Antibiotic activity of various types of Cannabis resin. Nature 195: 1007-1009.
• Van Kingeren, B. and Ten Ham, M., 1976. Antibacterial activity of delta-9-THC and cannabidiol. Ant. van Leeuw. J. Microbiol. Serol. 42: 9.

Movement Disorders

• Consroe, P. et al., 1986. Open label evaluation of cannabidiol in dystonic movement disorders. Int. J. Neurosci. 30: 277-282.
• Consroe, P. et al., 1991. Controlled clinical trial of cannabidiol in Huntington's disease. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 40: 701-708.
• Frankel, J.P. et al., 1990. Marijuana for Parkinsonian tremor. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 53: 436.
• Hemming, M. and Yellowle, P.M., 1993. Effective treatment of Tourette's-Syndrome with marijuana. J. Psychopharmacol. 7: 389-391.
• Moss, D.E. et al., 1989. Nicotine and cannabinoids as adjuncts to neuroleptics in the treatment of Tourette syndrome and other motor disorders. Life Sci. 44: 1521-1525.
• Ruchman, M.C., 1988. Role of cannabidiol in the medical treatment of Meige's syndrome. Ear Nose Throat J. 67: 919.
• Sandyk, R. et al., 1986. Cannabidiol in dystonic movement disorders. Psychiatry Res. 18: 291.
• Snider, S.R. and Consroe, P., 1984. Treatment of Meige syndrome with cannabidiol. Neurology 34(S1): 147.
• Snider, S.R. and Consroe, P., 1985. Beneficial and adverse effects of cannabidiol in a Parkinson patient with sinemet-induced dystonic dyskinesia. Neurology 35(S1): 201.

Multiple Sclerosis, Spasticity and other Neuromuscular Disorders

• Clifford, David B., 1983. Tetrahydrocannabinol for tremor in Multiple Sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 13: 669-671.
• Dunn, M. and Davis, R., 1974. The perceived effects of marijuana on spinal cord injured males. Paraplegia 12: 175.
• Elkin, R. et al., 1987. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a novel treatment of inflammatory demyelination. Fed. Proc. 46: 1378.
• Greenberg, H.S. et al., 1990. Marijuana and its effect on postural stability in Multiple Sclerosis patients with controls. Neurology 40(S1): 259.
• Hanigan, W.C. et al., 1986. The effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human spasticity. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Pharmacol. 39: 198.
• Lyman, W.D. et al., 1989. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol: A novel treatment for experimental autoimmune encephalitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 23: 73-82.
• Malec, J. et al., 1982. Cannabis effect on spasticity in spinal cord injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehab. 63: 116.
• Mauer, M. et al., 1990. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol shows anti-spastic and analgesic effects in a single case double-blind trial. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 240: 1-4.
• Meinck, H.M. et al., 1989. Effect of cannabinoids on spasticity and ataxia in Multiple Sclerosis. J. Neurol. 236: 120-122.
• Petro, D. 1980. Marihuana as a therapeutic agent for muscle spasm or spasticity. Psychosomatics 21: 81-85.
• Petro, D. and Ellenberger, C., Jr., 1981. Treatment of human spasticity with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 21: 413S-416S.
• Truong, X.T. and Hanigan, W.C., 1986. Effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on electromyographic measurements in human spasticity. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Pharmacol. Therap. 39: 232.
• Ungerleider, J.T. et al., 1987. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the treatment of spasticity associated with Multiple Sclerosis. Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abuse 7: 39-50.

Niemann-Pick Disease

• Burstein, S. et al., 1984. Stimulation of sphingomyelin hydrolysis by cannabidiol in fibroblasts from a Niemann-Pick patient. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 121: 168-173.

Opiate and Alcohol Addiction

• Bhargava, H.N., 1976. Effect of some cannabinoids on naloxone-precipitated abstinence in morphine-dependent rats. Psychopharmacology 49: 267.
• Carder, B., 1975. Blockage of morphine abstinence by delta-9-THC. Science 190: 590.
• Hine, B. et al., 1975. Morphine-dependent rats: blockage of precipitated abstinence by THC. Science 187: 443.
• Mikuriya, T., 1970. Cannabis substitution: an adjunctive tool in the treatment of alcoholism. Med. Times 98: 187-191.
• Rosenberg, C., 1976. The use of marijuana in the treatment of alcoholism. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen and Stillman, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 173-185.
• Rosenberg, C.M. et al., 1978. Cannabis in the treatment of alcoholism. J. Stud. Alcohol 39: 155.
• Scher, J., 1971. Marijuana as an agent in rehabilitating alcoholics. Am. J. Psychiatry 127: 971-972.

Pain

• Harris, L., 1976. Analgesic and antitumor potential of the cannabinoids. In The Therapeutic Potential of Marijuana, Cohen and Stillman, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 299-305.
• Milstein, S.L. et al., 1975. Marijuana-produced changes in pain tolerance: experienced and non-experienced subjects. Int. Pharmacopsychiatry 10: 177-182.
• Noyes, S.J., Jr. and Baram, D.A., 1974. Cannabis analgesia. Compr. Psychiatry 15: 5.
• Noyes, S.J., Jr. et al., 1975. The analgesic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and codeine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 18: 84-89.
• Noyes, S.J., Jr. et al., 1975. The analgesic effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J. Clin. Pharamacol. 15: 139.
• Volfe, Z. et al., 1985. Cannabinoids block release of serotonin from platelets induced by plasma from migraine patients. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. Res. 5: 243-246.
• Zeidenberg, P., et al., 1973. Effect of oral administration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on memory, speech and perception of thermal stimulation: results with four normal human subjects. Preliminary report. Compr. Psychiatry 14: 549.

Ulcers

• Bateman, D.N., 1987. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and gastric emptying. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 15: 139.
• Douthwaite, A.H., 1947. Choice of drugs in the treatment of duodenal ulcer. Br. Med. J. 43: 4514.
• Nalin, D.R. et al., 1978. Cannabis, hypochlrohydria and cholera. Lancet 2: 859.
• Sofia, R.D. et al., 1978. Evaluation of antiulcer activity of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the Shay rat test. Pharmacology 17: 173.