COCA CULTIVATION AND COCAINE PROCESSING:

AN OVERVIEW

DRUG ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATION

INTELLIGENCE DIVISION

STRATEGIC INTELLIGENCE SECTION

SEPTEMBER 1993

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Two of the lesser understood aspects of the illicit cocaine traffic are the

cultivation of the coca plant and the conversion of the coca leaf into

cocaine hydrochloride (HCl). While the coca plant can be found throughout

most of Latin America, varieties containing the cocaine alkaloid (the basis

for cocaine HCl) are cultivated and converted primarily in Peru, Bolivia and

Colombia.

There are two different species and several different varieties of coca

plants which contain the cocaine alkaloid and these varieties prosper under

quite different climatic conditions. At the same time, the methods used to

cultivate and harvest coca leaf differ depending on climate,tradition,and

other factors. The conversion of coca leaf into coca paste, cocaine base, and

cocaine hydrochloride is also a varied process with many steps involved and

many chemicals necessary.

THE COCA PLANT

It has been estimated that there are over 200 Erythroxylum species growing in

the Western Hemisphere. Only 17 species can be utilized to produce cocaine.

Fifteen of the 17 species contain relatively low levels of cocaine alkaloid

and subsequently are not cultivated. In South America two species and two

varieties within each of these species are cultivated. They are:

--E. coca Species

var. coca

var. ipadu

--E. novogranatense Species

var. novogranatense

var. truxillense

These varieties are traditionally cultivated in the following areas:

--Bolivia

E. coca var. coca

--Peru

E. coca var. coca

E. novogranatense var. truxillense

E. coca var. ipadu

--Colombia

E. novogranatense var. novogranatense

E. coca var. ipadu

E. novogranatense var. truxillense

The most widely grown variety of coca is E. coca var. coca which is

cultivated on the eastern slope of the Andes from Bolivia in the south to as

far north as central Ecuador. This area of the Andes has a tropical climate

and experiences high amounts of rainfall. Coca in this region is usually

grown between 1,650 and 4,950 feet in elevation.

E. novogranatense var. novogranatense thrives in the drier regions of

Colombia and, to a lesser extent, Venezuela. It is also grown at lower

elevations where the climate is generally hotter. The main variety of

E.novogranatense, var. truxillense, is grown up to an elevation of 4,950

feet. The last variety, E. coca var. ipadu, is found in southern Colombia,

northeastern Peru, and western Brazil in the Amazon basin. E. coca var. ipadu

is primarily cultivated by Indians for their own consumption and is not as

high in cocaine alkaloids as the other three.

It is not an easy task, even for an expert, to readily distinguish between

the different varieties of coca plants. One of the ways to identify the

variety is to look at the leaves. Both varieties of E. coca (E. coca var.

coca and E. coca var. ipadu) have broadly elliptic leaves. The leaf of var.

ipadu has a rounded apex, whereas the apex of var. coca is more pointed. The

leaf of var. coca is large, thick and dark green in color.

The leaf of E. novogranatense var. novogranatense is pale green with a

rounded apex and is somewhat narrower and thinner than the leaf of var. ipadu

and var.coca. E. novogranatense var. truxillense is very similar to var.

novogranatense except that it does not possess the lines parallel to the

central vein of the leaf that are characteristic to so many varieties of coca

plant.

The cocaine alkaloid content of the E. coca and the E. novogranatense species

also serves to distinguish between these species and the many other species

of wild coca that grow in Latin America. These other species contain much

lower levels of cocaine alkaloid. The usual cocaine alkaloid content of a

sample of coca leaf material is between 0.1 and 0.8 percent. The cocaine

alkaloid content can go much higher, however, as was shown in one sample of

coca leaf from the Chapare region in Bolivia that measured 1.2 percent. Coca

grown on the upper slopes of the Andes also contain more cocaine alkaloids

than coca grown in low-lying areas. It is therefore believed that the best

quality coca is grown at higher altitudes.

CULTIVATION

While methods of cultivating the coca plant are similar in many ways

throughout Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia, there are differences in techniques

because of terrain, tradition, and other factors.

Some coca plantations have been in existence for years. In other areas,

however, such as Peru's Upper Huauaga Valley, new plantations are being

established daily. A typical farmer who is preparing a field for coca will

usually pick an area that slopes slightly so that water will not drown his

plants. He will then begin clearing his field, normally by cutting trees and

stumps and setting fire to the debris, a clearing method known as slash and

bum. The felled trees are left in the field and the coca is simply planted

around them. The farmer has no motivation to move the logs since there is no

market for the timber. Logs are absent from the older fields because of rot

or because the farmer gradually cleared his field.

Once the field is cleared for cultivation, the farmer can ready his crop for

planting. The first step in cultivation generally begins with the seed. Seeds

are usually gathered from December through March from plants ranging from two

to three years in age. They are often poured into water at the onset to

identify bad seeds, which will usually float to the top and are discarded.

The good seeds are planted in small plots that are kept shaded from the sun.

Seeds are sown about two inches apart at a depth of approximately one half

inch in humus enriched soil. These seedbeds are kept well watered and weeded

frequently and the seeds will usually germinate within 20 to 30 days.

Sometimes the seeds are presoaked in water to hasten germination which will

then occur in about ten days.

Seedlings usually reach transplanting size in about two months. At this age

they are about 12 inches tall. While the measurements vary, seedlings

generally are planted in holes about a foot deep and about one and-one-half

feet from each other within rows about three feet apart.

Another popular method of establishing new fields of E. ipadu involves taking

a cutting from an established coca bush and planting it in the ground. This

method (cloning) is getting more popular as it gives the farmer a head start.

There are two methods of planting a cutting. One involves sticking several

branches a couple of feet long into the ground. The other method is to cut

three or four inch cuttings from a branch, each one with protruding smaller

branches. The cutting is soaked in water a day or so and then planted in

loose, fertile soil. It is reported that coca leaf can be harvested from

these plants within six months and seeds develop on these plants after one

year but the seeds lack embryos and are not viable.

A coca plant cultivated from seed will generally reach full maturity and its

leaves harvested between 12 and 24 months after being transplanted. Even

though coca growing in the wild has been known to reach heights of up to 30

feet, that which is cultivated is almost always pruned back to facilitate

harvesting the coca leaf. Cultivated fields are usually kept at a height of

three to six feet. All picking of coca leaf is done by hand. Harvesters have

to be very quick in their work yet careful not to damage the leaf buds on the

bush while stripping off the leaves. Leaves are said to be ready for harvest

when they take on a yellowish tint and have a tendency to crack when bent.

Coca leaf can be harvested between two and six times per year depending on

climatic conditions. Coca growing at lower altitudes will usually be

harvested more often than coca growing at higher altitudes. The most abundant

harvest, sometimes accounting for about half of the total yearly harvest,

takes place after the rains in March. Subsequent harvests take place in

June/July and November, the normal dry season in South America. Some

harvesting, however, takes place all year round.

When the leaves are harvested, they are put in sacks and taken to a closed

room and spread out on the floor. The next day, the leaves are taken to a

flat area, where they are spread in thin layers on a tarpaulin in direct

sunlight and left to dry. If there is a lot of sunshine and minimal cloud

cover, the drying phase can be completed in six hours. During inclement

weather, it takes much longer because at the first sign of rain the leaves

are gathered up and taken into shelter. If a load of coca leaves is caught by

a rainstorm during drying, it could ruin the whole load. This is because the

leaves will ferment if the moisture goes over 14 percent. This tends to cause

a breakdown of the cocaine alkaloids.

After the drying phase is completed, the coca leaves are swept into large

piles and left for about three days before being taken to market and/or

processing facilities. The weight of packaged leaves varies from the 100

pound "carga" in the Bolivian Chapare, to the 25 pound "arroba" in Peru's

Upper Huallaga Valley. In Colombia, coca leaves are not usually sold;

however, when dried coca leaves are sold, it is usually in packages of 25

pounds.

Peru

Peru, the world's largest source of coca, has both licit and illicit

cultivation. Licit coca is cultivation by farmers registered with the

National Coca Monopoly (ENACO). ENACO buys and sells it to retailers either

for resale domestically, for chewing or for herbal tea, or for export to

produce soft drink flavoring or pharmaceuticals. The 18,000 hectares that

have been registered for licit coca cultivation are centered in the

department of Cuzco.

Illicit coca cultivation occurs primarily in the Upper Huallaga Valley region

of northern Peru including the departments of San Martin, Huanuco, and

Ucayali. Other areas under cultivation include the valleys of La Convencion

and Lares in the department of Cuzco, and the provinces of Huanta and La Mar

along the Rio Apurimac in the department of Ayachucho. There are also smaller

growing areas located in the departments of Puno and Pasco.

The Upper Huallaga Valley is a tropical area with a mild climate that

receives an average of 12.44 feet of rain during the year. June through

September is the dry season when the region gets very little rainfall. The

mean annual temperature is 55 degrees Fahrenheit. Coca is usually grown here

between 1,980 to 2,640 feet above sea level but is sometimes planted up to

6,270 feet in altitude. The soil in the Upper Huallaga Valley is well drained

and rich in iron, an important element for all plant life.

The area surrounding Cuzco has an average rainfall of between 1.32 and 5.94

feet annually which usually falls between the months of October and April.

The average temperatures in this region are greater than 53 degrees

Fahrenheit. Coca is generally grown between 2,409 and 4,257 feet above sea

level. The soil is especially poor in iron content.

A semi-tropical climate with warm days and abundant rain fall, between 6.6

and 7.26 feet per annum, characterizes the Ayacucho area. Coca is usually

grown on steep slopes which require terracing at an elevation of between

1,650 and 4,290 feet. Soils in this area are red and high in iron.

Bolivia

Bolivia is the world's second largest source of coca leaf. There is both

licit and illicit coca cultivation occurring in this country as well. In

mid-1988, a law became effective that made coca cultivation illegal in most

of the country. The law also established legal, transitional, and illegal

zones of cultivation and declared that 12,000 hectares of coca would be the

amount grown to meet the traditional demand for coca.

There are roughly three main growing areas in Bolivia. The three areas are

the Yungas de La Paz, the Chapare, and the Apolo. Coca cultivation in the

Yungas de La Paz is located between the cities of Guanay and Inquisivi,

northeast of La Paz on the eastern slope of the Andes. Cultivation in the

Chapare occurs in the provinces of Carrasco, Chapare, and Arani in the

department of Cochabamba, east of La Paz. The small area of Apolo is in the

La Paz department north of the city of La Paz.

Nearly all the licit coca is grown in the traditional growing areas of the

Yungas. The overwhelming amount of illicit coca is grown in the Chapare where

it is estimated that about 75 percent of the country's coca crop is

cultivated. The amount of coca grown in the Apolo is much less than in either

of the two other areas.

Parts of the Yungas have been cultivated for hundreds of years. Coca is

planted at between 4,800 and 6,000 feet in altitude on terraced fields,

generally on steep slopes. Some of these fields have a slope of more than 45

degrees. The Yungas is characterized by a five-month rainy season that runs

from December to April receiving about 4 feet of rainfall per year, followed

by seven dry months. The soil content is poor, and this area has suffered

severe erosion problems.

In the Chapare, the weather is continually wet and warm, with an annual

rainfall averaging around 13 feet. The growing areas in this region are

broad, low plains containing some hills. Coca is cultivated at between 660

and 1,650 feet above sea level where the temperature averages around 57

degrees Fahrenheit. The soil is clay based, rich alluvial (sediment deposited

by flowing water).

The Apolo, located in La Paz department, is also a noteworthy coca-growing

region of Bolivia. Coca in the Apolo region is often interplanted with

coffee, a major crop in the area. Soil in the Apolo is not suited very well

to coca; the longevity of a coca bush there is only from five to eight years.

Coca plants in the Apolo are therefore constantly replaced.

Colombia

Colombia ranks third in worldwide coca leaf production with all cultivation

being illicit. There is widespread cultivation in the eastern plains region

of the Llanos which encompasses about one-half of Colombia. The heaviest

areas of cultivation are located in the departments of Putumayo, Caqueta,

Guaviare, and Vaupes. There is substantial expansion of the coca crop in the

Bolivar department in the north-central area of Colombia as well as areas of

cultivation in the south and southwest part of the country.

In the southern coca-growing region, the temperature averages between 49.5

and 52 degrees Fahrenheit and there is light rainfall. Coca is normally grown

between 3,300 arid 6,600 feet above sea level. The soil in this region is

iron rich; however, there is some erosion.

COCAINE PROCESSING

The conversion of coca leaves to coca paste, cocaine base, and cocaine

hydrochloride occurs primarily in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. Peru and

Bolivia are the primary locations for the conversion of leaf to coca paste

and cocaine base, while Colombia is the primary location for the final

conversion to cocaine hydrochloride. It is believed that both Peruvian and

Bolivian traffickers have begun increasing their production of HCI in the

last few years.

There are a number of chemicals and solvents which play vital roles in the

processing of coca leaves to paste, base and HCI. Many of these chemicals are

quite common; all are theoretically substitutable and all have legitimate

uses making them difficult to control.

Coca processing can be broken down into three stages. The first is the

conversion of the coca leaf into coca paste; this is almost always done very

close to the coca fields to cut down on the transport of the coca leaves. The

second phase is the conversion of coca paste into cocaine base. This step is

usually omitted in Colombia and the process is taken straight through from

paste to cocaine HCI. The final stage is conversion of base to HCI.

Coca Leaves to Coca Paste

The conversion of coca leaf into coca paste is accomplished in a coca paste

pit, or "pozo. " A typical coca paste pit is a very crude structure located

near the harvesting site and consists of only a very few items. Some paste

pits have even been reported in peasants' houses. The paste pit is usually a

hole in the ground, lined with thick, heavy plastic, or may even be a

55-gallon drum with the top cut out. Paste pits are often located near

streams so that the processors will have a constant supply of fresh water,

which is used in the first stage of processing. The process of converting

leaves to paste usually takes a few days. Often, however, the leaves will be

"worked" or "stomped" for only a few hours rendering less paste than if

"worked" for several days. It is apparently sometimes more desirable to move

the paste out than to get more paste per kilogram of coca leaf. Depending on

the size of the pit and the amount of leaf, the whole process will require

the energy of two to five workers.

The following recipe for coca paste is but one of many. Recipes will differ

depending on where the laboratory is located. Some will opt not to use water

in the first step and amounts and mixing times vary widely. However, this

remains a good benchmark formula.

--Step 1

The coca leaves are put in an above-ground container or in a plastic lined

pit. An alkaline material (sodium carbonate) and water are added to the

leaves. Here the alkaline material enables the cocaine alkaloid present in

the leaf to be extracted into kerosene.

--Step 2

A water immiscible solvent (kerosene) is added to water, solution, and

leaves. The mixture is then agitated. Usually this is accomplished by having

several people stomp on the leaves. The solvent acts to extract water

insoluble cocaine alkaloids from the alkaline solution.

--Step 3

Cocaine alkaloids and kerosene separate from water and leaves. The water and

leaves are then drained off.

--Step 4

Cocaine alkaloids are extracted from the kerosene into a dilute acid

solution. Alkaline material (sodium carbonate) is added to the remaining

solution which causes a precipitate to form . The acid and the water are

drained off and the precipitate is filtered and dried to produce coca paste,

a chunky, off-white to light brown, putty-like

substance.

Coca Paste to Cocaine Base

The processing of coca paste into cocaine base is more complicated than paste

production, requiring more sophisticated equipment and added skills. Cocaine

base can be processed at the paste facility, but base laboratories may be

located away from the cultivation zones. Usually the base laboratories are

located near rivers or have a clandestine airstrip located in the vicinity to

facilitate both the movement of coca paste into the base laboratory, but also

the movement of cocaine base to cocaine HCl laboratories.

As with the paste recipes, the base recipes have many versions. This one is

one of the more common and a continuation of the paste recipe.

--Step 1

The coca paste is added to sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid and water. The

paste is dissolved into the acid solution.

--Step 2

Potassium permanganate is combined with water. This mixture is added to the

coca paste and acid solution. Potassium permanganate is used in this step to

extract other alkaloids and material that is undesired in the final product.

In particular, potassium permanganate is used to break down the alkaloid

ciscinnamoylcocaine found in large concentrations in E. novogranatense

varieties. If the coca paste has a high concentration of this alkaloid and

potassium permanganate is not used, then crystallization of cocaine HCl will

be very difficult.

--Step 3

This mixture is allowed to stand for about six hours.

--Step 4

The solution is filtered and the precipitate is discarded. Ammonia water is

added to the filtered solution and another precipitate is formed.

--Step 5

The liquid is drained from the solution and the remaining precipitate is

usually dried with heating lamps. The resulting powder is cocaine base.

It is common in Colombia to skip the base stage of cocaine processing and go

right from coca paste to cocaine HCl. This can be accomplished by eliminating

the last part of step number four in coca paste processing and skipping to

step number two of the cocaine base phase where the coca paste is added to

the potassium permanganate solution.

Cocaine Base to Cocaine Hydrochloride (HCl)

The final stage of cocaine processing requires even more skill and equipment,

and is much more dangerous than the previously mentioned steps. Unlike paste

and base processing, cocaine HCl processing calls for expensive chemicals

that are harder to find and often not manufactured in the processing country.

The HCl laboratory usually consists of several buildings including

dormitories, eating facilities, an office, storage facilities, and the

laboratory itself. Also usually found at HCl laboratories are communications

operations, generators, filtering and drying equipment, and, more recently,

chemical recycling facilities. The HCl laboratory will sometimes have direct

access to an airstrip.

The following recipe is a continuation of the above two. At this point the

methods of processing vary only slightly.

--Step 1

Acetone or ether is added to dissolve the cocaine base and the solution is

filtered to remove undesired material.

--Step 2

Hydrochloric acid diluted in acetone or ether is added to the cocaine

solution. The addition of the hydrochloric acid causes the cocaine to

precipitate (crystallize) out of the solution as cocaine hydrochloride.

--Step 3

The remaining acetone/ether solvent can be discarded or reused.

--Step 4

Cocaine HCl is dried under heat lamps, laid out to dry with the aid of fans,

or dried in microwave ovens.

NATURAL ENEMIES AND ERADICATION EFFORTS

Although the coca bush is a very strong plant and will live for many years

and produce many harvests of leaf, it will do better if taken care of,

fertilized, and treated with herbicides and insecticides.

Occasionally, a coca field will become infested with one of the plant's

natural enemies. The main pests and the effect that they are known to have on

the plant are discussed below.

The larvae of the moth Eloria Noyesi presents the most serious threat to the

coca plant. This moth lives through out the coca-growing region of South

America and seems to feed almost exclusively on E. coca. It has also been

recorded feeding on E. novogranatense in Colombia and northern Peru. The

larva will develop in about a month and will eat up to 50 leaves in its

lifetime. The larva will also eat the shoots of the bush that grow out after

harvest. If Eloria attacks a plant repeatedly, even a strong plant will die.

The moth is usually only abundant from December to April. Coca growers are

using insecticides to eradicate Eloria.

The larvae of Eucleodora Coca, a fly, seems to cause harm only to Trujillo

coca. (There have been major infestations of this insect in the past usually

occuring from April to August.) The larvae spend their entire lives on the

plant, feeding on the leaves and shoots . As with the Eloria, Eucleodora is

being controlled with insecticides.

Very little is known about the effect of the leaf-cutting ant, Acromyrmex, on

coca. Growers in the Upper Huallaga Valley report that serious damage in the

past has been done to their coca cultivation. The damage is often controlled

with the use of insecticides and flooding. The beetle, Aegoidus Pacificus,

also poses a threat to Trujillo coca. The adult beetle lays her eggs in the

bark of the coca plant, and the larva later burrows into the stem of the

plant. This usually results in an infestation of pathogenic fungi which is

ultimately responsible for the death of the coca plant. As with the other

pests, the beetle can also be controlled with insecticides.

Most of the other insects which attack coca only do so when there are

shortages of their normal food supply. Some scientists believe that cocaine

and other alkaloids may present some natural defense against most pests.

Nevertheless, sometimes insects such as spider mites, grasshoppers,

leafhoppers, and beetles find it necessary to eat coca.

The coca plant is also susceptible to numerous species of pathogenic fungi.

Fungi seem to present the greatest threat to a plant during the wet season.

The most serious threat seems to come from a fungus called "witches broom ."

The exact effect of this fungus on the coca plant is not clear because of the

limited amount of study which has been done on this fungus infesting coca

plantations.

Natural enemies hold hope for control of the coca plant in the future. At

present, however, the most successful methods in controlling the growth of

coca are herbicides and manual eradication.

As of early 1990, all eradication of the coca plant in Bolivia and Colombia

was being done manually. The usual method has been for a team of eradication

workers to go into a field and pull up the bushes plant by plant. In Peru,

manual eradication of coca is often suspended because of security reasons.

Prior to that time, a number of gasoline-powered cutters had been supplied to

the workers making it easier and much quicker to cut the coca. The problem

with this method is that sometimes the coca bush will sprout from the stump

within 12 to 18 months. As such, the cutting must be made very close to the

ground to insure that the plant does not sprout again.

A number of herbicides have been tested for use in eradicating the coca plant

including hexazinone and tebuthiuron (spike) . Application of both has been

deemed successful in killing the plant as long as they are applied in the

correct manner and amount. Within ten to twenty days after application of

hexazinone or tebuthiuron the coca bush sheds all its leaves and usually

within 60 to 90 days the coca plant will be completely dead.

The United States is working with some South American governments to develop

an herbicidal eradication program; Bolivia, however, has prohibited the use

of herbicides for this purpose.

[NOTE: the report from which this text was input contained accompanying

illustrations.]